Cyclic electric field stress on bipolar resistive switching devices

We have studied the effects of accumulating cyclic electrical pulses of increasing amplitude on the non-volatile resistance state of interfaces made by sputtering a metal (Au, Pt) on top of the surface of a cuprate superconductor YBa$_2$Cu$_3$O$_{7-\delta}$ (YBCO). We have analyzed the influence of the number of applied pulses $N$ on the relative amplitude of the remnant resistance change between the high ($R_H$) and the low ($R_L$) state [$\alpha=(R_{H}-R_{L})/R_{L}$] at different temperatures ($T$). We show that the critical voltage ($V_c$) needed to produce a resistive switching (RS, i.e. $\alpha >0$) decreases with increasing $N$ or $T$. We also find a power law relation between the voltage of the pulses and the number of pulses $N_{\alpha_0}$ required to produce a RS of $\alpha=\alpha_0$. This relation remains very similar to the Basquin equation used to describe the stress-fatigue lifetime curves in mechanical tests. This points out to the similarity between the physics of the RS, associated with the diffusion of oxygen vacancies induced by electrical pulses, and the propagation of defects in materials subjected to repeated mechanical stress.Comment: 5 pages, 5 figures. To be published in JAP. Corresponding author: [email protected]

Poole-Frenkel effect and Variable-Range Hopping conduction in metal / YBCO resistive switching devices

Current-voltage (IV) characteristics and the temperature dependence of the contact resistance [$R(T)$] of Au / YBa$_2$Cu$_3$O$_{7-\delta}$ (optimally doped YBCO) interfaces have been studied at different resistance states. This states were produced by resistive switching after accumulating cyclic electrical pulses of increasing number and voltage amplitude. The IV characteristics and the $R(T)$ dependence of the different states are consistent with a Poole-Frenkel (P-F) emission mechanism with trapping-energy levels $E_t$ in the 0.06-0.11 eV range. $E_t$ remains constant up to a number-of-pulses-dependent critical voltage and increases linearly with further increasing the voltage amplitude of the pulses. The observation of a P-F mechanism reveals the existence of an oxygen-depleted layer of YBCO near the interface. A simple electrical transport scenario is discussed, where the degree of disorder, the trap energy level and the temperature range determine an electrical conduction dominated by non-linear effects, or by a P-F emission or by a Variable-Range Hopping regime.Comment: 16 pages, 5 figure

Mémoires résistives non volatiles à base de jonctions métal-oxyde complexe

Resistive Random Access Memories (RRAM) have attracted significant attention recently, as it is considered as one of the most promising candidates for the next generation of non-volatile memory devices. This is due to its low power consumption, fast switching speed and the ability to become a high density memory compatible with the conventional CMOS processes. The working principle of this kind of memories is the resistive switching (RS) which is simply the controlled reversible change in the resistivity of a junction generated by an external electric field. It has been proposed that the RS is coupled with the migration of oxygen vacancies generating a reversible conduction path inside the oxide. Many experiments have been done to address the switching mechanism during the last decade without any conclusive answer of what is the physical mechanism beneath the RS. The main goal of the present work it's to understand the physical mechanism that control the RS and to point out which are the key parameters that can help improve the performance of the memory devices from a technological point of view. In this dissertation we report on the studies of the RS in different interfaces metal/oxide where we have utilized gold, silver and platinum as metal and as complex oxides: YBa2Cu3O7–δ (YBCO), La0.67Sr0.33MnO3 (LSMO) y La0.7Sr0.3CoO3 (LSCO). This oxides have been chosen because all of them are strongly correlated compounds with physical properties strongly dependent of their oxygen stoichiometry. They also have a similar crystalline structure (perovskite type) and a high oxygen mobility. We realized the proof of concept for each type of junction successfully and explain the RS effect and explained the RS utilizing an electric assisted diffusion of oxygen vacancies model. We characterized them the conduction mechanism of the junctures with a conduction dominated by the Poole-Frenkel effect in the YBCO and by the SCLC mechanism in the LSCO. The feasibility of the memory devices in this junctions have been tested reaching high repeatability with optimize power consumption with more than 103 successful switching events. We have also studied the effects of accumulating cyclic electrical pulses of increasing amplitude on the non-volatile resistance state of the junctions. We have found a relation between the RS amplitude and the number of applied pulses, at a fixed amplitude and temperature. This relation remains very similar to the Basquin equation use to describe the stress-fatigue lifetime curves in mechanical tests. This points out to the similarity between the physics of the RS and the propagation of defects in materials subjected to repeated mechanical stress. This relation can be used as the basis to build an error correction scheme. Finally, we have analyzed the time evolution of the remnant resistive state in the oxide-metal interfaces. The time relaxation can be described by a stretched exponential law that is characterized by a power exponent close to 0.5. We found that the characteristic time increases with increasing temperature and applied power which means that this is not a standard thermally activated process. The results are a clear evidence of the relation between RS and the diffusion of oxygen vacancies on a two-dimensional surface with a temperature-dependent density of trapping centers, which may correspond, physically, to the diffusion along grain boundaries.Las memorias resistivas están entre los principales candidatos a ser utilizados como elementos en una nueva generación de memorias no volátiles. Esto se debe a su bajo consumo energético, una alta velocidad de lectura/escritura y a la posibilidad de lograr memorias de alta densidad compatibles con los procesos de la tecnología CMOS actual (por sus siglas en inglés: Complementary Metal–Oxide–Semiconductor).El funcionamiento de estas memorias se basa en la conmutación resistiva (CR), que consiste en el cambio controlado de la resistencia de una interfase metal-óxido a través de estímulos eléctricos. Si bien hasta el presente no se ha podido determinar con certeza el mecanismo físico que controla la CR, se piensa que está basado en el movimiento de vacancias de oxígeno que formarían de manera reversible zonas de alta/baja conducción dentro del óxido.La presente tesis tiene como objetivo principal entender los mecanismos físicos que gobiernan a la CR y poner en evidencia algunos de los aspectos esenciales que pueden contribuir a lograr dispositivos útiles desde el punto de vista tecnológico.Para ello se han realizado estudios de las características principales de la CR para distintas interfases metal-óxido a distintas condiciones de temperatura. Se han utilizado Au, Pt y Ag como metales y los siguientes óxidos complejos YBa2Cu3O7–δ (YBCO), La0.67Sr0.33MnO3 (LSMO) y La0.7Sr0.3CoO3 (LSCO). Se han elegido estos óxidos complejos debido a que presentan características similares, como ser materiales fuertemente correlacionados con una estructura cristalina tipo perovskita y una alta movilidad de oxígenos, lo que afecta muchas de sus propiedades físicas, ya que dependen fuertemente de la estequiometría.Nuestros resultados han demostrado la existencia de una CR bipolar en todos estos sistemas. Ésta es explicada satisfactoriamente a través de un modelo de difusión de vacancias de oxígeno asistidas por campo eléctrico.Se han caracterizado las interfases como dispositivos de memoria, estudiando sus mecanismos de conducción, encontrándose una conducción dominada por un mecanismo del tipo Poole-Frenkel para la muestra de YBCO y una conducción del tipo SCLC para el LSCO y el LSMO. Adicionalmente, se ha conseguido una alta durabilidad y repetitividad en el funcionamiento de estas junturas como dispositivos de memoria,vgracias a la optimización en el protocolo utilizado para escribir/borrar, lográndose más de 103 conmutaciones consecutivas sin fallas en dispositivos bulk.También se ha estudiado el efecto de la acumulación de pulsos idénticos en las interfases obteniéndose una relación entre la amplitud de la CR y el número de pulsos aplicado a amplitud y temperatura fijas. Luego de someter la interfase a ciclos de fatiga eléctrica, se ha encontrado una similitud entre la evolución de la resistencia remanente en esta con la propagación de defectos en un metal sometido a pruebas de fatiga mecánica. Esta relación puede ser usada como base para generar un algoritmo de corrección de errores y para mejorar la efectividad y el consumo de energía de estos dispositivos de memoria.Finalmente, se han realizado estudios sobre la evolución temporal de cada estado de resistencia. Hemos demostrado que sigue una ley exponencial estirada con un exponente cercano a 0.5 y un tiempo característico dado, que depende tanto de la temperatura como de la potencia utilizada. Estos resultados implican que la evolución temporal no está dominada por un proceso estándar de difusión térmicamente activado. La difusión de vacancias de oxígeno ocurre en una superficie con una densidad de trampas que depende de la temperatura, donde dicha superficie correspondería físicamente a los bordes de grano del óxido.Les mémoires vives à changement de résistance (ReRAM de l'anglais Resistive Random Access Memories) attirent fortement l'attention car elles sont considérées comme unes des plus prometteuses pour la prochaine génération de composants. Ceci est du à leurs basse consommation de puissance, leurs vitesse de commutation élevée et leurs potentiel pour devenir une mémoire à haute densité compatible avec la technologie CMOS. Ces mémoires se basent sur l'effet de commutation résistive (RS de l'anglais resistive switching) qui est un changement réversible de la résistivité contrôlé par un champ électrique externe. Il a été proposé que le RS soit couplé avec la migration de lacunes d'oxygène qui permet de générer, de façon réversible, un canal de conduction dans l'oxyde. Plusieurs expériences ont été menées pour élucider les mécanismes de la commutation pendant les dernières années sans aucune conclusion définitive sur le mécanisme sous jacent au RS. Le principal objectif de ce travail est de comprendre les mécanismes physiques qui contrôlent le RS et de pointer quels sont les paramètres clés qui pourraient améliorer la performance des dispositifs d'un point de vue technologique. Dans cette mémoire nous présentons des études de RS dans différentes interfaces métal/oxyde en utilisant de l'or, de l'argent et du platine comme métaux et des oxydes complexes : YBa2Cu3O7–δ (YBCO), La0.67Sr0.33MnO3 (LSMO) et La0.7Sr0.3CoO3 (LSCO). Ces oxydes ont été choisis car ce sont des systèmes à électrons fortement corrélés ayant des propriétés physiques qui dépendent fortement de la Stœchiométrie d'oxygène. Ils ont une structure similaire (type pérovskite) et une haute mobilité d'oxygène. Nous avons réalisé la validation du principe de fonctionnement pour chaque type de jonction et expliqué le RS en utilisant un modèle de diffusion de lacunes d'oxygène assisté par champ électrique. Nous avons caractérisé ensuite le mécanisme de conduction des jonctions qui suit une conduction dominé par un effet Poole-Frenkel dans YBCO et par un mécanisme type SCLC dans LSCO. La faisabilité des dispositifs de mémoire dans ces jonctions a été testée atteignant des répétitivités élevées avec une consommation de puissance optimale avec plus de 103 commutations RS réussies. Nous avons également étudié l'effet d'accumulation d'impulsions électriques cycliques d'amplitude croissante sur l'état de résistance de la mémoire non-volatile de la jonction. On a trouvé une relation entre l'amplitude du RS et le nombre d'impulsions appliquées pour une amplitude et une température fixées. Cette relation est similaire à l'équation de Basquin qui décrit la loi d'endommagement dans les essais mécaniques de fatigue reliant la contrainte appliquée au nombre de répétitions de la sollicitation (temps de vie). Ceci fait ressortir la similarité de la physique du RS et de la propagation de défauts dans les matériaux soumis à des contraintes mécaniques cycliques. Finalement, nous avons analysé l'évolution temporelle de l'état résistif rémanent dans l'interface oxyde-métal. Le temps de relaxation peut se décrire par une loi exponentielle étendue qui est caractérisée par un exposant d'étirement près de 0.5. Nous trouvons que les temps caractéristiques augmentent avec la température et la puissance appliquée ce qui veut dire que ce n'est pas un phénomène classique d'activation thermique. Les résultats mettent clairement en évidence la relation entre le RS et la diffusion de lacunes d'oxygène dans une surface avec une densité de pièges dépendante de la température et qui peut correspondre physiquement à la diffusion aux joints de grains

Connes' Tangent Groupoid and Strict Quantization

We address one of the open problems in quantization theory recently listed by Rieffel. By developping in detail Connes' tangent groupoid principle and using previous work by Landsman, we show how to construct a strict, flabby quantization, which is moreover an asymptotic morphism and satisfies the reality and traciality constraints, on any oriented Riemannian manifold. That construction generalizes the standard Moyal rule. The paper can be considered as an introduction to quantization theory from Connes' point of view.Comment: LaTeX file, 22 pages (elsart.cls required). Minor changes. Final version to appear in J. Geom. and Phy

Electron Doping Effect in the Resistive Switching Properties of Al/Gd 1- x Ca x MnO 3/Au Memristor Devices

We report on the resistive switching (RS) properties of Al/Gd1–xCaxMnO3 (GCMO)/Au thin-film memristors. The devices were studied over the whole calcium substitution range x as a function of electrical field and temperature. The RS properties were found to be highly dependent on the Ca substitution. The optimal concentration was determined to be near x = 0.9, which is higher than the values reported for other similar manganite-based devices. We utilize an equivalent circuit model which accounts for the obtained results and allows us to determine that the electrical conduction properties of the devices are dominated by the Poole–Frenkel conduction mechanism for all compositions. The model also shows that lower trap energy values are associated with better RS properties. Our results indicate that the main RS properties of Al/GCMO/Au devices are comparable to those of other similar manganite-based materials, but there are marked differences in the switching behavior, which encourage further exploration of mixed-valence perovskite manganites for RS applications.</p

Enhancing Spin Transfer Torque in Magnetic Tunnel Junction Devices: Exploring the Influence of Capping Layer Materials and Thickness on Device Characteristics

We have developed and optimized two categories of spin transfer torque magnetic tunnel junctions (STT-MTJs) that exhibit a high tunnel magnetoresistance (TMR) ratio, low critical current, high outputpower in the micro watt range, and auto-oscillation behavior. These characteristics demonstrate the potential of STT-MTJs for low-power, high-speed, and reliable spintronic applications, including magnetic memory, logic, and signal processing. The only distinguishing factor between the two categories, denoted as A-MTJs and B-MTJs, is the composition of their free layers, 2 CoFeB/0.21 Ta/6 CoFeSiB for A-MTJs and 2 CoFeB/0.21 Ta/7 NiFe for B-MTJs. Our study reveals that B-MTJs exhibit lower critical currents for auto-oscillation than A-MTJs. We found that both stacks have comparable saturation magnetization and anisotropy field, suggesting that the difference in auto-oscillation behavior is due to the higher damping of A-MTJs compared to B-MTJs. To verify this hypothesis, we employed the all-optical time-resolved magneto-optical Kerr effect (TRMOKE) technique, which confirmed that STT-MTJs with lower damping exhibited auto-oscillation at lower critical current values. Additionally, our study aimed to optimize the STT-MTJ performance by investigating the impact of the capping layer on the device's response to electronic and optical stimuli

RF signal classification in hardware with an RF spintronic neural network

Extracting information from radiofrequency (RF) signals using artificial neural networks at low energy cost is a critical need for a wide range of applications. Here we show how to leverage the intrinsic dynamics of spintronic nanodevices called magnetic tunnel junctions to process multiple analogue RF inputs in parallel and perform synaptic operations. Furthermore, we achieve classification of RF signals with experimental data from magnetic tunnel junctions as neurons and synapses, with the same accuracy as an equivalent software neural network. These results are a key step for embedded radiofrequency artificial intelligence.Comment: 8 pages, 5 figure

Increased Curie temperature and magnetoresistive response by modifying Fe/Mo ratio in Sr2FeMoO6 thin films

We investigated the effect of deposition distance on a set of otherwise identically grown Sr2FeMoO6 (SFMO) thin films grown by pulsed laser deposition. Based on the detailed magnetic and transport measurements, we found that the optimal properties can be realized at longer deposition distances than earlier expected. The achieved onset Curie temperature of the order of 400 K with the middle transition value of 372 K, which are clearly the highest presented in the literature for the SFMO thin films. In addition, the increased metallicity and magnetoresistive response is observed in films deposited at longer distances. The improvements are widely discussed in the light of discovered stoichiometric imbalance between the cations Fe and Mo, which modify the magnetic interactions and thus magnetic and electric properties. Therefore, this study shows a new approach in the deposition process to provide the SFMO thin films and multilayers of high quality for future spin valve devices working at room temperature.</p

Multilayer spintronic neural networks with radio-frequency connections

Spintronic nano-synapses and nano-neurons perform complex cognitive computations with high accuracy thanks to their rich, reproducible and controllable magnetization dynamics. These dynamical nanodevices could transform artificial intelligence hardware, provided that they implement state-of-the art deep neural networks. However, there is today no scalable way to connect them in multilayers. Here we show that the flagship nano-components of spintronics, magnetic tunnel junctions, can be connected into multilayer neural networks where they implement both synapses and neurons thanks to their magnetization dynamics, and communicate by processing, transmitting and receiving radio frequency (RF) signals. We build a hardware spintronic neural network composed of nine magnetic tunnel junctions connected in two layers, and show that it natively classifies nonlinearly-separable RF inputs with an accuracy of 97.7%. Using physical simulations, we demonstrate that a large network of nanoscale junctions can achieve state-of the-art identification of drones from their RF transmissions, without digitization, and consuming only a few milliwatts, which is a gain of more than four orders of magnitude in power consumption compared to currently used techniques. This study lays the foundation for deep, dynamical, spintronic neural networks

Comparing multiple competing interventions in the absence of randomized trials using clinical risk-benefit analysis

<p>Abstract</p> <p>Background</p> <p>To demonstrate the use of risk-benefit analysis for comparing multiple competing interventions in the absence of randomized trials, we applied this approach to the evaluation of five anticoagulants to prevent thrombosis in patients undergoing orthopedic surgery.</p> <p>Methods</p> <p>Using a cost-effectiveness approach from a clinical perspective (i.e. risk benefit analysis) we compared thromboprophylaxis with warfarin, low molecular weight heparin, unfractionated heparin, fondaparinux or ximelagatran in patients undergoing major orthopedic surgery, with sub-analyses according to surgery type. Proportions and variances of events defining risk (major bleeding) and benefit (thrombosis averted) were obtained through a meta-analysis and used to define beta distributions. Monte Carlo simulations were conducted and used to calculate incremental risks, benefits, and risk-benefit ratios. Finally, net clinical benefit was calculated for all replications across a range of risk-benefit acceptability thresholds, with a reference range obtained by estimating the case fatality rate - ratio of thrombosis to bleeding.</p> <p>Results</p> <p>The analysis showed that compared to placebo ximelagatran was superior to other options but final results were influenced by type of surgery, since ximelagatran was superior in total knee replacement but not in total hip replacement.</p> <p>Conclusions</p> <p>Using simulation and economic techniques we demonstrate a method that allows comparing multiple competing interventions in the absence of randomized trials with multiple arms by determining the option with the best risk-benefit profile. It can be helpful in clinical decision making since it incorporates risk, benefit, and personal risk acceptance.</p